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fever or pyrexia

Fever is an increase in body temperature compared with physiological values, which in dogs and cats with a minimum of 37 ° 8'C to a maximum of 39 ° 3'C, in response to a disease process or a drug.

It should be differentiated by hyperthermia, since both the causes and treatment in the two conditions differ considerably.

In fact the term fever indicate increases in body temperature due to the endogenous formation of heat, and secondarily to an increase in the calibration point of the hypothalamic thermoregulation system.
instead Hyperthermia is an increase in body temperature that occurs when the calibration point is normal, for example due to an external heat source or excessive exercise.

fever is therefore due to disease processes or medications that cause, directly or indirectly (through pyrogenic substances that cause the production and release of cytokines such as interleukin and prostaglandins by mononuclear leukocytes and macrophages), rising point calibration of temperature control, moving the standard to values \u200b\u200bhigher than normal and turning, therefore, appropriate physiological responses on the part of 'organism designed to produce enough heat to bring the level of body heat to the new value by muscle contraction (the so-called chills) and ensuring its continuation through vasoconstriction.
These reactions result in increases in metabolic demand of muscle wasting, bone marrow suppression, increases in water and energy needs and, sometimes, in severe cases and prolonged, vascular coagulation disseminated ( December ) and shock.

remember that if a prolonged fever that exceeds 40 °, 5'C leads to dehydration, anorexia and depression of sensorium, once it reaches beyond 41 °, 1'C can cause cerebral edema, neurological signs, depression bone marrow and December.

The factors causing fever are mainly represented by:

INFECTIOUS AGENTS

-Virus ( FeLV , FIV , Parvovirus , Virus del Cimurro, Herpesvirus e Calicivirus )

-Batteri ( endotossine di batteri Gram positivi e Gram negativi)

-Micosi sistemiche ( Histoplasma , Blastomyces , Coccidioidomyces e Cryptococcus )

- Rickettsie ( Ehrlichia , Rickettisia rickettsii , Hemobartonella )

-Parasites and protozoa ( Babesia, Toxoplasma, larva migrans aberrant thromboembolism by Dirofilaria , Leishmania).

DISEASES immune-mediated

-systemic lupus erythematosus

-immune-mediated hemolytic anemia

- immune-mediated thrombocytopenia

- Pemphigus

-Polyarthritis

- Polymyositis

- Vasculitis

-reactions to blood transfusions

Endocrine and metabolic causes

-Hyperthyroidism

- hypoadrenocorticism

- Pheochromocytoma

- hyperlipidaemia

- Hypernatremia

NEOPLASMS

Lymphoma-

myeloproliferative disease-

-Neoplasms plasmocellulari

- mastocytoma

-tumor metastasis and solid tumors (mainly liver, kidneys, bones, lungs and lymph nodes).

other inflammatory diseases

- cholangiohepatitis

- hepatic lipidosis

-toxic liver disease-cirrhosis

Inflammation-intestinal

-Pancreatitis Peritonitis

-

-Pleurisy

-granulomatous diseases

-Thrombophlebitis

-Myocardial

- Pansteatite

- panniculitis

-hypertrophic osteodystrophy

-blunt trauma

-cyclical neutropenia

-intracranial lesions (encephalitis, trauma, etc.).

- pulmonary thromboembolism.

DRUGS AND TOXIC COMPOUND

-Antibiotics (Cephalosporins , Penicillin, Tetracycline, Griseofulvin , nitrofurantoin, amphotericin B)

-Sulfonamides

-Barbiturates

-halide

-Atropine

- Cimetidine

- MMI

- Propylthiouracil

-Salicylates (in alte dosi)

- Antiistaminici

- Procainamide

-Metalli pesanti

Infine si parla di febbre di origine sconosciuta ( FUO = Fever of Unknown Origin ) per indicare una condizione di rialzo termico che perdura da 1 o 2 settimane, apparentemente senza nessuna causa ovvero senza contemporanee anomalie rilevabili agli esami diagnostici di routine e che soprattutto non risponde alle normali terapie antibiotiche.
I segni clinici di più comune riscontro in presenza di febbre (oltre alle manifestazioni direttamente collegate alla malattia primaria che ne è causa), sono dati da letargia, anoressia e comportamenti atipici, come la tendenza a nascondersi o l'irritabilità. Infine possono essere presenti altre manifestazioni riferibili alla malattia primaria responsabile del rialzo termico.
Una buona indagine anamnestica (contatto con agenti infettanti, una recente vaccinazione, somministrazione di farmaci, morsicature d'insetti, episodi di allergia, ecc.) ed un'accurata visita clinica possono contribuire di solito a stabilire correttamente quale sia la malattia all'origine della febbre.
remember that stress is the anxiety that an animal alive during the visit or hospitalization, are in themselves sufficient to determine a slight rise in temperature, however, generally not exceeding 39 ° 4'C. The fever plays a crucial role when it exceeds 40 ° C, while temperatures above 41 ° 7'C are usually considered as a result of hyperthermia that is absolutely treated early because it puts at risk the life of the subject.
Among the treatments to be implemented by first principle is the reduction of all physical activity also causes a fever since the hypercatabolism , should provide the body with an intake of the diets affected and above all a high calorie fluids balanced which in itself alone could help to reduce body temperature.
Keep in mind that the primary goal of therapy should be to restore the center of the standard physiological thermoregulation previous value, set at a level lower than at present. But the choice of drugs to be administered to achieve this goal depends on the diagnosis and specific cause which induced fever.
So it is not advisable to start immediately a shock therapy with broad spectrum, as a substitute for a thorough diagnostic procedure, unless the patient's condition are not really critical or getting worse quickly.
Recall that a fever can help control the disease in place (for example, by preventing bacterial or viral replication and thereby facilitate the action of the natural immunity of the host, because the high temperatures encourage many enzymatic processes).
For this reason, the antipyretic treatment will be used only when the fever persists for many hours and could endanger the life of the subject, exceeding 41 ° C.
This treatment is however indicated in patients who are already in perfect physical condition (heart failure, seizures, difficulty breathing, etc.). but we must remember, however, that doing so risks failing to identify the root cause of the fever itself and of delaying the introduction of a proper treatment, altering patient monitoring, which would include the observation of ' trend in body temperature every 12 hours and possible side effects analysis (blood and urine tests, x-rays, ultrasounds, biopsies, etc.). .
Finally, it is said that if as regards the subject of youth is more likely that the origin of the fever there is an infectious disease, more than any other cause, but in these the prognosis is better than that of older animals, where the causes common but are represented by fever and infections, abdominal tumors, the clinical signs tend to be nonspecific and the prognosis is often confidential.

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Parasitology: roundworms of dogs and cats

parasitosis is the most widespread and frequent throughout the world, that affects both dogs (Toxocara canis and Toxascaris leonina) and cats (Toxocara cati and Toxascaris leonina).

We are talking about round worms (nematodes) of white, the length between 2 and 18 cm that are located in the adult form, at the level of 'small intestine of their hosts, actively swimming against the current against del flusso delle ingesta, determinato dalla peristalsi intestinale.
L'infestazione avviene principalmente per ingestione delle uova (direttamente o tramite un ospite paratenico cioè un vettore meccanico, come ad esempio un invertebrato).
Le uova di questi vermi infatti sono assai resistenti in ambiente esterno (dove, in condizioni ottimali, maturano in 10-15 giorni) e si caratterizzano inoltre per l'estrema adesività grazie al loro peculiare guscio mammellonato.
Quando mature esse contengono una larva infestante (detta L2), che una volta ingerita, sotto lo stimolo di fattori dell'ambiente gastroenterico (temperatura, moisture, pH and CO2), the shell is free and begins to migrate through the enterohepatic, reaching the liver where the larvae L2 L3 to carry the mutation later.
Always through the circle are placed subsequently in the lungs, where change still in L3/L4 and actively going through the bronchi up to the trachea, are swallowed finally completing their development of adult small intestine.
Next to this cycle (characteristic of Toxocara spp.) Covering the adults, we must consider a different way regarding fetuses and pups under 2 months, or the passage of larvae L2 transplacentally or via colostrum and milk of L3 larvae (in this case, these larvae do not do more migrations, but complete their development in the gut in 30 days), and finally 'ingestion of larvae L2 dormant encysted at the level of somatic muscles or internal organs of paratenic host (cockroaches, earthworms, rodents, chickens, pigs, etc.). that in this case making the classic migration entero-hepato-pulmonary-enteritis.
pointed out that the suppression of the immune response that occurs during pregnancy and lactation promotes the migration of somatic larvae, not only to the fetus and breast cancers, but also intestine of the dog and the cat itself, which, therefore, at this time in the external scatter a large number of eggs.
As for the symptoms related to such parasites, usually the larval migration (microascaridiosi) shall take effect almost always asymptomatic, but sometimes, especially in the case of a high parasite load, we could detect pneumonia, vomiting and diarrhea.
forms of infestation by adult parasites (macroascaridiosi), however, result in the puppy first and foremost a stunted growth with poor weight gain, poor conditions of the mantle and possible epileptiform crisis subtractive per share of nutrients (like glucose), and then, by direct mechanical action (you could even intestinal obstruction due to the presence of bundles of these pests) and irritation to the gastrointestinal tract drooling, vomiting and diarrhea.
Cubs appear smaller with the presence of such forms is a typical abdomen swollen and tense.
In these cases the pesticide treatments are not free from risk, since the death of a large number of parasites, without being expelled, in addition to determine partial or complete intestinal blockage, a greater absorption of histamine-like substances to toxic action as a result of the collapse of the worms. Among other possibilities that can be realized in the course of macroascaridiosi should be taken into consideration by the appearance of jaundice stasis, for the wedge of helminths in the bile duct or as a result of intussusception, for involvement of the intestine small intestine where the pipe ends.
In severe cases, may extend to intestinal perforation with peritonitis fatal!
In chronic infestations are frequently found at last been anemic, weakness, bone dystrophies and preserved or increased appetite with weight loss.
In adults the symptoms are usually more vague and include in addition to poor general conditions, gastrointestinal disorders and occasional small claims: a disordered bowel function with alternating loose stools, vomiting and constipation normal or sporadic.

The diagnosis is easier for macroascaridiosi, since it is more likely that we will find parasitological examination of feces (flotation) eggs removed from adult females, since they produce in abundance.
But sometimes the lack of positive findings scatology, it allows us to make immediate diagnosis, so it is advisable to repeat the examination several times, because it might mean that we are still in the period prepatenza (adult forms that have not yet completed their reproductive phase) or in the course of microascaridiosi and therefore we must give time to the larvae reach the intestine and become adults, so start to produce eggs.
But sometimes the parasites reach the stomach may be vomited, or otherwise (especially in cases of minor infestations), the host organism is able to have the upper hand, thanks to the immune reaction (as evidenced, inter alia, by high eosinophilia), and causes death and thus to expel the feces and in such cases the direct observation of adults, to eliminate possible to effettuare una diagnosi diretta, senza ombra di dubbio.
La terapia prevede l'uso di vari antielmintici, ma tra i principi attivi più efficaci e sicuri, c'è senz'altro il pirantel pamoato, consigliato soprattutto nei cuccioli e nei gattini, specie se affetti da diarrea.
Mentre nelle cagne gravide, per prevenire l'infestazione dei cuccioli, può essere somministrato il fenbendazolo a basso dosaggio, a partire dal 40° giorno di gravidanza sino al 14° giorno dopo il parto. Altro principio attivo efficace è la piperazina (può essere somministrata anche in presenza di gastroenterite o in animali gravidi).
In ogni caso non è mai sufficiente un solo ed unico trattamento, ma è sempre consigliabile ripetere ad intervalli regolari di due o tre settimane, la somministrazione dell'antielmintico, in genere almeno per due-tre volte; questo perché si tratta di sostanze che agiscono soltanto sulle forme adulte presenti nell'intestino al momento della somministrazione, mentre le forme larvali non vengono raggiunte.
La prognosi di guarigione, in conseguenza della corretta somministrazione dell'antielmintico più indicato, in genere è buona, fatta eccezione per le infestazioni massive in soggetti giovani, in cui la crescita è già molto compromessa al momento del trattamento, and could therefore never reach their physiological size.
An important chapter is that of prevention, because we are talking about a parasitic disease that also affects humans, even accidentally.
In human medicine it has long been known and reported all over the world, a special morbid syndrome is defined by "larva migrans" visceral, in which all stakeholders are the viscera, and especially the liver, lungs, eyes and the brain. In these locations the L2 larvae, mostly T.canis, just accidentally taken by mouth with mature eggs released into the environment (More frequent occurrence in children), Migrate inflammatory processes that trigger reactive histiocytic and eosinophilic granulomatosis in print.
For this reason, we recommend the removal of faeces from public places and also recommended accurate pest control (with sodium hypochlorite, or phenol) of kennels and farms in order to clean up the environment, systematically destroying the eggs of these pests, as well as frequent and regular worming is recommended in animals that share our home environment.

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syndrome brachycephaly

This term usually indicates a syndrome respiratory syndrome, or obstructive upper airway due to the presence of real multiple anatomical abnormalities that are typical of both brachycephalic breeds of dogs (Bulldogs, Boston Terrier, Pug, Pekingese, Shi Tzu, Shar-pei, but Chow-chow, Bull Mastiff, Boxer and others) of cats (Persian and Himalayan).

In these races you have a bone growth in width of the head, but not in length, while the soft tissues are not reduced in proportion to the skeleton bone that holds them.

Such alterations that may lead to develop serious respiratory problems also include stenotic nares (ie too narrow), an overly long soft palate, the eversion of the laryngeal ventricles, laryngeal collapse, and typical of the British Bulldog, tracheal hypoplasia.

The severity of these abnormalities may be of varying degrees, also may act separately or you can have different combinations of these in the same subject.
This leads to very different clinical pictures, but usually the common framework is to reduce the flow of air through the upper respiratory tract (extrathoracic), which produces obstructive symptoms with evident breath sounds, with screeching and wheezing (breathing snoring), increase in respiratory effort, possible problems swallowing, cyanosis of varying degrees up to syncope, with loss of consciousness.
course, the symptoms will worsen in the course of exercise, excitement or stress and rise in temperature and humidity: all situations in which the animal tends to develop polypnea, making it the largest difficulties in the passage of air.
inspiratory efforts associated with this syndrome usually cause edema and consequently inflammation secondary laryngeal and pharyngeal mucosa, accentuating the eversion of the laryngeal ventricle, which further reduces the diameter of the glottis, worsening symptoms and triggering a vicious cycle that leads to a growing sense of suffocation in the animal.
From the above it is clear that in some cases can produce a dangerous obstruction of the upper airway, which is put at risk the very life of the subject and which requires immediate emergency treatment.
Let's see how to diagnose this syndrome.
In general, it is assumed based race, symptoms and appearance of the external nostrils: stenosis of the nostrils is usually bilaterally symmetrical and wing folds can be sucked in during inspiration, thereby worsening the reduction of air flow.
Among the tests is recommended in the first direct observation of the larynx by laryngoscope, and, secondly, the radiographic evaluation of the upper airways of the trachea and in particular, to estimate the amount and severity of changes and then issue a final diagnosis.
Most most other causes of upper airway obstruction in fact you can confirm or exclude based on its results of these tests.
With regard to the therapy must bear in mind that it is designed to minimize factors that exacerbate the clinical symptoms (and is therefore recommended a reduction in body weight, we must also limit ' exercise, remove the states of agitation, promote environmental and body cooling) and increase the flow of air through the upper airway (including oxygen therapy).
Il trattamento di scelta è di sicuro la correzione chirurgica dei difetti anatomici.
La procedura specifica ovviamente dipende dall'anomalia che si vuole correggere e può includere sia l'ampliamento delle narici esterne che l'asportazione della porzione del palato molle in eccesso e dei ventricoli laringei estroflessi.
La correzione delle narici stenotiche è un intervento abbastanza semplice e può da solo portare ad una sorprendente diminuzione dei sintomi nei soggetti affetti.
Il trattamento medico, che consiste nella somministrazione di glucocorticoidi a rapida action (anti-inflammatory doses), Oxygen and enforced rest in a cage, may reduce both inflammation and edema of the pharynx and larynx and secondary, thus increasing the air flow, alleviate symptoms for some time, but unfortunately not will however be sufficient to solve the problem, even if it extends too may even aggravate the disease progression.

However in an emergency situation, for sure will help to mitigate the obstructive symptoms and the resulting difficulty in breathing, allowing us to take time to plan the best surgical therapy.
in what the prognosis will depend therefore on the severity of anatomic and on whether or not to correct surgically. For many animals
prognosis resulting from the latter option, especially if performed early (usually within the first two years of age), is good. laryngeal collapse instead is a negative prognostic indicator.

The permanent tracheotomy or tracheostomy can be considered a salvage procedure in patients with severe collapse.
It should also be emphasized that a hypoplastic trachea unfortunately can not be treated surgically, but that does not even exist a clear and direct correlation between the degree of hypoplasia, the morbidity and mortality. The symptoms gradually worsen
instead if you do not correct the issues that have been unleashed.